BY-PRODUCTS | Edible, for Human Consumption

H.W. Ockerman , L. Basu , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (Second Edition), 2014

Tripe

Beef tripe is produced from the first (rumen, paunch) and second (reticulum, honeycomb) stomachs of cattle. It is referred to as plain (3.2  kg) and honeycomb (680   g), respectively. Sheep stomach can be processed similar to beef stomach and will yield approximately 1   kg of tripe. Pork stomach can also be processed and will yield approximately 1.2   kg of tripe. The omasum (bible) from beef or lamb is difficult to clean, deteriorates quickly, and is not usually used for human food. Brown, almost furry, 'raw unscalded' beef tripe is the paunch that has been cold-water flushed to remove the contents. After scalding, cream-colored, denuded tripe is made from the paunch (rumen), which is then washed in running water, with hot water in a rotating machine with continuous flushing or with diluted soda water (limewater), and then soaked in tap water. The dark internal lining is scraped to remove the mucosa. The clean stomach is converted into tripe by cutting to size and pickling in salt brine, or by cooking and pickling in a weak salt and vinegar brine. Tripe may be precooked (usual form) in water, sometimes fully cooked, and may be packed in vinegar, pickled or canned.

Types of beef tripe products available include the following:

•

Tripe cooked: Scalded tripe, cooled, drained, and then cooked to increase firmness.

•

Tripe cooked and bleached: Cooked tripe that is bleached and neutralized.

•

Mountain chain beef tripe: Dark cream-colored, muscular pillars from mature cattle that is scalded or treated with additives.

Types of pork stomach available include the following:

•

Whole unscalded: Light to medium brown, inverted, cleaned, and trimmed; the lining might be removed.

•

Scalded form: Cream to light brown, inverted, cleaned and trimmed, and scalded; the lining might also be removed.

Precooked tripe requires additional salt-water cooking and is often served with sauces or dressings or used in meat casseroles, stews, or pies. Because tripe is delicately flavored, it is often combined with tomato sauce, buttered and broiled, covered with dressing and baked, dipped in butter and sautéed, or combined with a thick soup.

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OFFAL | Types of Offal

W.F. Spooncer , in Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (Second Edition), 2003

Tripe

Cattle and sheep stomachs have four compartments, all of which can be used to make tripe. Tripe from the rumen and reticulum is the most common. Rumen tripe is known as blanket tripe and reticulum tripe is known as the honeycomb. The internal surface of the rumen has densely packed papillae, while the reticulum has ridges in the shape of a honeycomb structure. In addition, there are thickened folds in the rumen wall. These folds contain a core of smooth muscle and are not covered by papillae. The fold can be trimmed out of the rumen to produce pillae tripe, known commercially as pillar or mountain chain.

The third compartment of the ruminant stomach is the omasum. The internal wall is in the form of deep, thin folds like the pages of a book. This appearance accounts for the popular name for the omasum, which is 'bible.' Although the omasum has a delicate flavor and texture, it is not commonly used as tripe because of the difficulty of cleaning the stomach contents from between the folds. The fourth part of the ruminant stomach is the abomasum, sometimes called the reed.

The four parts of the stomach are collected in one piece and the omental fat (caul fat) and spleen are removed. The neck of the omasum is cut to separate the rumen and reticulum from the omasum and abomasum. The rumen is cut open and the contents of the rumen and reticulum washed out. The rumen and reticulum are then trimmed into the different tripes, and external fat is trimmed off. Mountain chain tripe does not receive further processing, but blanket and honeycomb tripes may be further cleaned, scalded, and bleached with hydrogen peroxide.

The walls of ruminant stomachs are composed of smooth muscle and connective tissue. The papillae in the rumen are composed of collagen and elastin fibers covered with cornified epithelia, while the ridges and folds in the reticulum and omasum contain smooth muscle as well as connective tissue. There are small, cornified papillae on the folds of the omasum, and the surfaces of the folds are covered by a keratinized mucous membrane. The abomasum has a thick epithelial lining.

Tripes are generally tough because of the high connective tissue content. They contain about 35   g of collagen per 100   g of protein. They require prolonged, moist cooking to tenderize them. Bleached tripe is treated with caustic soda and has a pH of about 7–9, which increases the water-holding capacity and helps to tenderize the tripe.

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Canning of meat and poultry

In A Complete Course in Canning and Related Processes (Fourteenth Edition), 2016

7.2.8 Sausage

Sausage meat may be canned as pork sausage or meat from other animals or a mixture of meats. The ingredients may include beef trimmings, tripe, poultry, and so on. Each sausage maker has individual formulas or recipes for the sausage. These vary greatly in different localities. The following formulae may be used as a starting point and varied to suit the desires of the trade.

Sausage meat

Ingredients Metric amount Imperial (U.S.) amount
Regular pork trimmings 22.7   kg 50   lbs.
Tripe 11.4   kg 25   lbs.
Pork or beef head meat 11.4   kg 25   lbs.
Salt 1.1   kg 2 ½   lbs.
White pepper* 227   g 8   oz.
Mace* 28   g 1   oz.
Sage* 57   g 2   oz.
*
A specially formulated spice blend or spice oil with the equivalent amounts of these ingredients may be used.

Pork sausage meat

Ingredients Metric amount Imperial (U.S.) amount
Regular pork trimmings 45.5   kg 100   lbs.
Salt 1.1   kg 2 ½   lbs.
Sage* 28   g 1   oz.
White pepper* 198   g 7   oz.
Savory* 18   g 5⁄8   oz.
*
An especially formulated spice blend.

The meats are ground through a meat grinder, using the. 0.4   cm (5/32-in.) plate. The amounts of each ingredient as specified in the formula are weighed and mixed in the sausage mixer with the salt and spices until thoroughly mixed.

The filled cans are passed slowly through an exhaust box so that the average temperature of the contents is at least 52   °C (125   °F). The cans should be closed immediately after exhausting.

Examples of process times and temperatures for sausage meats, in still retorts*

Can size Time Temperature
1   lb. (454   kg) 120   min 116   °C (240   °F)
2   lb. (0.91   kg) 150   min 116   °C (240   °F)
*
These processes are subject to change as further information becomes available. For latest recommended processes or for processes in other sterilisation systems or in other can sizes, consult with a competent thermal process authority.

Immediately after processing, the cans should be water cooled to 95–105   °F (37–42   °C).

Vienna sausage. Vienna sausages used for canning are especially prepared for that purpose. The cured sausage meat is stuffed in narrow casings, which are not linked, but hung over the smoke sticks forming two lengths of approximately 0.6   m (2   ft.). The sausage is given a good drying and a light smoke in the smokehouse. Too much smoking gives an excessive smoked flavour to the canned product. If the product is not dried sufficiently, splitting of the casings will be observed after processing.

The sausage is cut either by hand or machine into suitable lengths for standing on end in the can, allowing for approximately 6   mm (0.25   in.) headspace. The pieces of sausage are packed into the cans by hand to approximately the desired weight and placed on a conveyor, which carries them to the weighers, who adjust the contents to the desired weight.

The interstices and headspace of the filled cans are sometimes filled with gelatin, but most canners use only boiling water or brine instead. The latter procedure gives a clear liquor and a very satisfactory product (see Figure 7.2).

Figure 7.2. Canned Vienna sausages.

The filled cans are passed through a steam exhaust box. The time of the exhaust varies from 3 to 5   min, depending on the size of the can. After exhausting, the centre of the can should be 70   °C (160   °F). From the exhaust box the cans should pass immediately to the closing machine for sealing. There should be no delay between the exhausting and closing of the can.

The sealed cans are immediately processed. The following processes are suggested for still retorts:*

Examples of process times and temperatures for Vienna sausages, in still retorts*

Can size Time Temperature
4   oz. (113   g) 80   min 116   °C (240   °F)
10   oz. (285   g) 130   min 116   °C (240   °F)
24   oz. (680   g) 200   min 116   °C (240   °F)
*
These processes are subject to change as further information becomes available. For latest recommended processes or for processes in other sterilisation systems or in other can sizes, consult with a competent thermal process authority.

After processing, the cans should be cooled immediately in cold water until the temperature at the centre of the can has been reduced to between 95 and 105   °F (37 and 42   °C).

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Global Food and Nutrition: World Food, Health and the Environment

Jacqueline B. Marcus MS, RD, LD, CNS, FADA , in Culinary Nutrition, 2013

Soups, Gumbos, and Stews

Soups, gumbos, and stews are popular starters to Puerto Rican meals. They include caldo gallego (Galician sausage and greens soup), mondongo (tripe soup), sopón de garbanzos con patas de cerdo (chickpea soup with pig's feet), sopón de pescado (fish soup), and sopón de pollo con arroz (chicken soup with rice).

Asopao is a traditional Puerto Rican stew that includes asopao de pollo (chicken stew) and asopao de gandules (rice and pigeon pea stew). Other stews include carne guisada puertorriqueña (beef stew), habichuelas rosadas secas (red bean stew), and sancocho (root vegetable stew).

Typical soup and stew ingredients are asparagus, capers, chili peppers, chorizo sausages, cilantro, cured ham, garlic, green peas, green peppers, olives, onions, oregano, paprika, pimientos, potatoes, raisins, salt pork and/or tomatoes.

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Edible By-products

Herbert W. Ockerman , ... Fidel Toldrá , in Lawrie´s Meat Science (Eighth Edition), 2017

22.3 Nutritional Value of Edible By-products

Edible by-products are usually different from skeletal tissue in structure, composition, and sensory properties. By-products such as blood, liver, lung, heart, kidney, brains, spleen, and tripe constitute part of the diet in different countries worldwide and have a high nutritional value ( Honikel, 2011) as reflected by its composition (Table 22.3), especially in its content in minerals and trace elements (Table 22.4) and vitamins (Table 22.5). The values given in such tables reflect approximate values, which are merely indicative for informative purposes since the chemical composition is subjected to many variables for each particular animal such as species, genetics, age, gender, type of feed, and type of breeding. The iron content in edible by-products is higher than in respective meats, while spleen, liver, tongue, and heart are richer in zinc (see Chapter 20). Liver and kidney are particularly rich in selenium, while liver, brain, and spleen are rich in phosphorus. In general, all by-products, and especially liver, constitute a good source of vitamin B and liver and kidney for vitamin A (García-Llatas et al., 2011). A better knowledge of the nutritional value of edible by-products would contribute to an increase in the consumption of these products.

Table 22.3. Proximate Composition in Major Constituents per 100   g of Beef, Pork, and Lamb Edible By-products

Organ Species Energy (kcal) Protein (g) Fat (g) Carbohydrates (g)
Liver Beef 130 21 3 5
Pork 140 22 4.5 3
Lamb 150 21 5 5
Heart Beef 115 17 5 0.5
Pork 115 17 5 0.5
Lamb 120 17 5.5 0.5
Kidney Beef 100 16 4 1
Pork 90 16 3 1
Lamb 95 17 3 1
Brain Calf 120 10.5 8.5 <1
Pork 125 10.5 9 <1
Lamb 120 10.5 8 <1
Tongue Beef 185 16.5 13 0.5
Pork 180 16 13 0.5
Spleen Beef 110 18 3.5 1
Pork 105 18 2.5 –
Lamb 95 17 3 –
Blood Beef 70 16.5 0.4 0.1
Pork 70 17 0.4 0.1

Adapted from Honikel, K.O., 2011. Composition and calories. In: Nollet, L.M.L., Toldrá, F. (Eds.), Handbook of Analysis of Edible Animal By-products. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp. 105–121 and Ockerman, H.W., Basu, L., 2014. By-products. In: Devine, C., Dikeman, M. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences, second ed. Oxford, Elsevier, UK, pp. 104–112.

Table 22.4. Proximate Composition of Minerals per 100   g of Raw Portion of Beef, Pork, and Lamb Edible By-products

Organ Species Ca (mg) P (mg) Fe (mg) Na (mg) K (mg) Mg (mg) Se (µg) Zn (mg)
Liver Beef 7 356 6.7 110 300 35 15 4
Pork 8 363 20 80 295 30 46 7.5
Lamb 7.5 250 8.5 85 300 20 55 4.5
Heart Beef 5 210 4.5 90 250 17 15 1.5
Pork 4.5 165 4.1 67 200 17 – 6.5
Lamb 5 210 3.5 140 280 20 2 2
Kidney Beef 10.5 219 6.5 178 230 20 115 2
Pork 9.5 240 6.0 160 240 20 190 2.5
Lamb 8 250 5 150 270 15 – –
Brain Beef 10 312 2.3 125 219 15 – 1
Pork 10 312 2.5 125 219 15 1.5 1.5
Lamb 10 270 2 110 300 12 – 1.5
Tongue Beef 7 175 2.5 75 220 18 2 3
Pork 11 190 4.5 115 255 18 12 2.6
Spleen Beef 6 360 44 80 320 20 30 4
Pork 6 370 21 85 320 17 35 7
Lamb 6 – 42 85 360 20 – 3
Blood Beef 7 50 50 330 43 3 15 0.5
Pork 7 75 40 210 170 9 8 0.3

Adapted from Ockerman, H.W., Hansen, C.L., 2000. Animal By-product Processing and Utilization. Technomic, Lancaster, PA and Honikel, K.O., 2011. Composition and calories. In: Nollet, L.M.L., Toldrá, F. (Eds.), Handbook of Analysis of Edible Animal By-products. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp. 105–121.

Table 22.5. Proximate Composition of Vitamins per 100   g of Raw Portion of Beef, Pork, and Lamb Edible By-products

Organ Species Vitamin B1 (mg) Vitamin B2 (mg) Vitamin B3 (mg) Vitamin B5 (mg) Vitamin B6 (mg) Vitamin B12 (μg) Vitamin A (RE μg) Vitamin C (mg) Vitamin D (μg) Vitamin E (mg)
Liver Beef 0.3 3.5 20 7.5 1.0 100 21,000 30 1.7 0.7
Pork 0.3 3.0 21 7.0 0.7 40 20,000 25 5.0 0.7
Lamb 0.35 3.0 14 8.0 0.4 85 50,000 35 0.6 0.4
Heart Beef 0.2 0.45 35 2.5 0.3 10 6 2 1.0 0.2
Pork 0.6 0.45 10 2.5 0.45 2.5 5 3 0.7 0.2
Lamb 0.4 0.99 6 2.6 0.4 10 Nil 5 – –
Kidney Beef 0.4 2.0 9.5 3.5 0.45 30 800 15 1 0.2
Pork 0.35 1.7 13.5 3.0 0.6 10 150 12 1 0.2
Lamb 0.6 2.2 7.5 4.2 0.22 52 316 11 – –
Brain Beef 0.15 0.25 4.5 2.5 0.3 12 – 15 – –
Pork 0.15 0.30 4.0 1.0 1.0 11 – 15 – –
Lamb 0.13 0.30 3.9 0.9 0.3 11 – 14 – –
Tongue Beef 0.1 0.4 6.5 2 0.15 5.0 Nil 5.0 Tr 0.1
Pork 0.3 0.4 8.0 2 0.35 3.5 9 3.5 0.6 0.5
Lamb 0.1 0.4 4.6 – 0.18 7.2 0 6 – –
Spleen Beef 0.15 0.3 8 1.2 0.12 5.5 Tr 45 – –
Pork 0.15 0.3 6 1.0 0.05 3.5 Tr 30 – –
Lamb 0.05 0.3 8 – 0.11 5.3 0 23 – –
Blood Beef 0.1 0.1 3.5 – 0.01 0.6 30 Nil 0.1 0.4
Pork 0.1 0.1 3.5 – 0.01 0.6 25 Nil 0.1 0.4

Tr, trace.

Adapted from Ockerman, H.W., Hansen, C.L., 2000. Animal By-product Processing and Utilization. Technomic, Lancaster, PA; Honikel, K.O., 2011. Composition and calories. In: Nollet, L.M.L., Toldrá, F. (Eds.), Handbook of Analysis of Edible Animal By-products. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp. 105–121 and Kim, Y.N., 2011. Vitamins. In: Nollet, L.M.L., Toldrá, F. (Eds.), Handbook of Analysis of Edible Animal By-products. CRC Press, USA, pp. 161–182.

Edible by-products are relatively rich in saturated fatty acids, and the contents of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are low (Prates et al., 2011; Alfaia et al., 2017) as shown in Table 22.6. There is a large variability in the content of fatty acids among the different by-products. Major fatty acids are palmitic (C16:0), stearic (C18:0), oleic (C18:1), linoleic (C18:2), and arachidonic acids (C20:4). However, brain contains high levels of n-3 PUFA (Alfaia et al., 2017). The amount of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in the meat and edible by-products from ruminants is particularly relevant due to its formation by rumen microorganisms (see Chapter 20). CLA is a term defining a group of geometric and positional isomers of linoleic acid that has received attention because of their anticarcinogenic effects as well as other reported effects on the immune system and lipid metabolism (Schmid et al., 2006). The isomer in higher proportion is rumenic acid (cis-9, trans-11 CLA), which is produced in rumen through microbial biohydrogenation of dietary linoleic acid and also endogenous formation by delta-9 desaturation of vaccenic acid (Nuernberg et al., 2005). It has been reported that the endogenous synthesis of rumenic acid decreases when the exogenous supply is increased (Palmquist et al., 2004). The concentrations of CLA may be as high as 4.3–19.0   mg/g lipid in lamb and 1.2–10.0   mg/g lipid in beef, but the content varies also considerably from animal to animal and even between different tissues within an animal (Prates and Bessa, 2009). The highest content is in liver, followed by tongue, heart, and kidney (Florek et al., 2012). On the other hand, the cholesterol content in edible by-products is usually several times higher than in muscle tissue (see Chapter 20), as shown in Table 22.7, because it is the major component of cell membranes and of nerves and is an active metabolite within the cells of organs and glandular meats (Bragagnolo, 2011). This high cholesterol content restricts for health concerns the consumption of edible by-products. The content of essential amino acids in edible by-products is high with outstanding content of lysine within the range 72–82   mg/g protein, leucine with 80–90   mg/g protein, and valine with 52–62   mg/g protein (Aristoy and Toldrá, 2011).

Table 22.6. Range of Percentage of Fatty Acids in Fats From Beef and Pork Edible By-products

Fatty Acid Liver Heart Kidney Brain Spleen
Beef Pork Beef Pork Beef Pork Beef Pork Beef Pork
C10:0 Tr – 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1 – – – Tr
C12:0 0.2 Tr-0.2 0.1 Tr–0.3 0.2 0.1–0.3 – Tr Tr–0.3 Tr–0.4
C13:0 Tr 0.1 – – – Tr – – – –
C13:1 Tr – – – – – – – Tr –
C14:R – – 0.2 – 0.1 0.1 0.2 Tr – 0.1
C14:0 0.8–1 0.5–1.7 0.2–2 0.2–2 2.0 0.5–1.7 0.4–1 0.3–0.8 1–2 1–2
C14:1 0.1–0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2–0.3 01–0.34 0.1 0.1–0.2 – – Tr
C15:R 0.5 – 0.2 – 0.7 – 0.2 – – –
C15:0 0.7 0.1–0.2 0.3 Tr–0.1 0.8 0.1 2 0.1 0.4 0.1
C15:1 2 – 0.3 – 0.4 0.4 – 1 0.7 Tr
C16:R – 0.7 0.6 0.3 – – 0.2 – – –
C16:0 12–15 12–16 12–16 14–20 14–22 18–21 12–16 12–16 18–24 18–22
C16:1 1–4 0.4–2.8 2–4 0.2–3 1–4 0.5–3.8 1–2 0.8–2.3 3 2–4
C16:2 – – – – – – 0.8 – 0.8 –
C17:0 1 0.4–0.7 0.9 0.2–0.5 0.9 0.3–0.7 0.7 0.3 2 2
C17:1 3.7 0.4–0.7 2.3 0.1–0.2 0.9 0.1–0.3 2.8 0.1 1.0 2.3
C18:0 15–25 17–27 14–21 12–14 15–25 13–19 10–22 18–23 13–15 13–20
C18:1 12–19 13–34 19–29 12–27 18–29 17–40 16–30 21–28 23–31 23–29
C18:2 9–10 12–16 7–16 23–35 5–12 7–17 0.2–0.6 0.6–2 7 7–8
C18:3 3.2 0.3–1.2 2 0.4–2.4 0.3–2 0.2–0.4 0.1–0.16 Tr–2.3 2 2
C19:0 0.3 0.7 0.6 2 2 0.6 0.6 1 1 3
C20:0 0.1 Tr–0.1 0.1–0.2 Tr–0.1 0.3–0.6 0.1–0.2 0.2–0.3 0.2–0.3 2 1
C20:1 0.1–0.3 0.2–0.3 0.1–0.3 0.2–0.6 0.3–0.6 0.4–0.8 0.2–0.3 1.2–1.8 – 1
C20:2 0.2–0.4 0.2–0.4 0.1–0.3 0.6–0.9 0.4–0.7 0.7–0.9 0.1 0–1 – 2
C20:3 Tr–0.1 Tr–0.7 Tr–0.1 Tr–1 Tr–0.3 0.1 0.1–0.2 0.1 – –
C20:4 6–12 3–17 4–14 8–20 11–16 3–19 5–8 9–11 5.2 2.4
C20:5 0.3–0.5 0.1–0.5 0.3–0.7 0.3–0.5 0.3–0.6 0.2–0.6 – 0.1 – 0.4
C22:0 0.6–1.7 – 0.8–1.7 0.7 0.6–1,7 0.4 0.5–0.6 0.6 – 2
C22:4 1.7–3.4 0.3–1.4 0.4–0.7 0.9–1.3 0.6–0.9 0.9–1.8 4.6–5.2 4.2–5.3 1 –
Saturated 37.3–52.0 32.1–46.0 30.0–46.0 26.6–40.9 31.5–56.5 32.00–43.8 23.3–48.4 41.0–46.1 33.3–46.8 33.3–50.6
Unsaturated 48.0–62.7 61.7–54.0 54.0–70.0 59.1–73.4 43.5–68.5 56.2–68.0 51.6–76.7 53.9–59.0 53.2–66.7 49.4–66.7

Tr, trace; R, clockwise rotation around the asymmetric carbon.

Adapted from USDA, 2016. USDA Food Composition Databases. https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list; Prates, J.A.M., Alfaia, C., Alves, S., Bessa, R., 2011. Fatty acids. In: Nollet, L.M.L., Toldrá, F. (Eds.), Handbook of Analysis of Edible Animal By-products. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp. 137–159 and Florek, M., LitwiÅ„czuk, Z., SkaÅ‚ecki, P., KÄ™dzierska-Matysek, M., Grodzicki, T., 2012. Chemical composition and inherent properties of offal from calves maintained under two production systems. Meat Science 90, 402–409.

Table 22.7. Range of Cholesterol Content Expressed as mg/100   g of Portion of Beef, Pork, and Lamb Edible By-products

Organ Species Raw
Liver Beef 91–140
Pork 90–150
Lamb 371–473
Heart Beef 192–338
Pork 214–354
Lamb 129–140
Kidney Beef 100–517
Pork 310–700
Lamb 315–338
Brain Beef 1456–3010
Pork 2195–2550
Lamb 1352
Tongue Beef 78–171
Pork 87–116
Lamb 132–180

Adapted from Bragagnolo, N., 2011. Analysis of cholesterol in edible animal by-products. In: Nollet, L.M.L., Toldrá, F. (Eds.), Handbook of Analysis of Edible Animal By-products. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp. 43–63.

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Typical cooked sausage products from around the world

Gerhard Feiner , in Meat Products Handbook, 2006

13.11 Mortadella (Italy)

Mortadella is a traditional Italian delicacy from Bologna. It is light pink in colour and the fine sausage mass has visible fat cubes distributed evenly throughout. Traditional mortadella is a shelf-stable product and no refrigeration is required. Original Mortadella is made from meat and fat from pork only and also contains, depending on the quality of the product, pork rind emulsion and/or cooked tripe. Tripe and pork stomachs are used for reasons of cost and taste, because tripe not only is cheap but also contributes to the flavour in a unique way. A traditional high-quality mortadella contains around 35% pork trimmings (shoulder) (90% CL grade), pork trimmings (85% CL grade), 15% pork belly, 10% tripe and 20% visible cubes (around 1 cm × 1 cm) of pork neck fat. If no tripe is available, then 35% belly meat is used. Traditional mortadella is made in a mincer–mixer system. Only around 4–5% water is added. Caseinate or dried milk powder is sometimes used at 2–5%, and the additives include nitrite. More economic recipes contain around 6–15% rind emulsion, less lean shoulder meat and up to 25% visible pork back fat. Around 10% water is added in cheaper recipes, and the product is commonly made in the bowl cutter. The spices used in mortadella include nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, pepper and a touch of coriander.

The process of producing traditional mortadella starts with mincing or flaking tempered meat and fat (and tripe) at around –5 °C and then placing them both in a mixer. The meat and fat are mixed and then minced with a 12–14 mm blade. The coarsely minced mass is then minced again with a very fine blade, 0.8–0.9 mm, and the finely minced mass is returned to the mixer again. Salt, water, nitrite, spices and all other additives are added, and everything mixed well until a tacky mass is obtained. Occasionally, materials such as spices, salt, nitrite and water are added to the coarsely minced materials and mixed well before being minced with the 0.8–0.9 mm blade. This avoids the addition of powdered materials to a very finely minced meat mass. Blanched (90 °C for around 2–3 min) and drained fat cubes are then mixed into the finely minced mass.

The sausage mass is filled into large fibrous or cellulose casings and commonly placed in a net (depending on the size and weight). It is then baked (dry heat) at 82–85 °C in a low RH until a core temperature of 74–76 °C is reached. Traditional mortadella is not smoked, although some modern recipes do add a touch of smoke. The loss in weight during baking is around 15% and the A w in the finished product is around 0.93, which restricts the growth of bacteria such as Salmonella spp. The high core temperature during baking also destroys bacteria very effectively, especially those which might otherwise survive and grow at the low A w, such as Staphylococcus aureus. The final product contains around 2.2–2.4% salt, which is quite high, thus lowering the A w and improving stability. The combination of effectively killing all vegetative bacteria, reducing the A w below 0.95, and having high levels of salt and other water-binding agents makes a traditional mortadella shelf stable.

Many different qualities of mortadella are produced, and much of it has very little resemblance to the traditional product. Commonly, a fairly low-cost fine emulsion is made using the all-in method and blanched cubes of fat are mixed into the emulsion. The finished emulsion is then generally filled into large fibrous casings and dried at 60–65 °C in a low RH before being smoked for a short while at around 70 °C. The product is then steamed at 78–80 °C until a core temperature of 70 °C is reached. Heat treatment is sometimes carried out in stages, first steaming until the core temperature reaches 65 °C and then baking at around 85 °C to raise the core temperature to 70 °C, which results in a stronger colour and flavour. These types of mortadella are not shelf stable and must be stored under refrigeration. Low-cost mortadella may even be filled into waterproof casings and steamed or cooked in a water bath at 80 °C until a core temperature of 70 °C is reached.

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ETHNIC MEAT PRODUCTS | Brazil and South America

F. González-Schnake , R. Nova , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (Second Edition), 2014

Sausages

Most of the most popular sausages in South America have European roots, not only Spanish and Portuguese but also with a large Italian and German influence. Chorizo, mortadela, salchichón, and salame are only few examples of how European immigrants influenced the development of the charcuterie in South America.

Like many other sausages, the most popular products in South America, linguiça and longaniza, are generally served as part of a heavy meal, typically accompanied by rice, beans or potatoes. Feijoada, for example, is a traditional dish, very common in Brazil, which incorporates linguiça with beans and other foods.

There are many types of meat products in South America with a wide variety of colors, flavors, and textures. These products constitute an important part of the local economy and tradition. Indeed, owing to the economic growth the elaboration has become more mechanized, but the processing is still based on the traditional manufacturing processes.

This section will highlight four food products that stand out for either their penetration in the region and/or for the modifications that have experimented to adapt to local ingredients and taste.

Butifarra

Butifarra is a traditional Spanish product that has become highly popular in the northern part of South America, especially in Colombia.

This cooked fresh sausage is elaborated using beef, but butifarras made of chicken or pork can also be found. In some areas a mix of these three kinds of meats are used in its production.

Lean meat, fat, and spices are mixed and then cased in edible tripe. Whereas the Spanish version of this product has a cylindrical shape, the Colombian one is more spherical. After casing, the butifarras are cooked in boiling water and can be consumed immediately because they do not require a ripening period.

Linguiça

Linguiça is a sausage that has its origin in Portugal and is very popular in Brazilian cuisine.

There are many varieties of this product, so it can be produced from pork or from more than one kind of meat, can be smoked or not, can be cured or not, can be added with fat or produced more lean, and it can be cased in natural or artificial edible casing (Figures 2–4).

Figure 2. Brazilian sausage Linguiça Calabresa.

 Courtesy of Eduardo A. Norkus (DVM).

Figure 3. Brazilian sausage Linguiça carne frango (with chicken meat).

 Courtesy of Eduardo A. Norkus (DVM).

Figure 4. Brazilian sausage Linguiça carne mista (pork and beef).

 Courtesy of Eduardo A. Norkus (DVM).

Most commonly it is prepared with pork and up to 20% of beef plus the added seasoning.

Linguiças must be stored for a period of time to develop the desired organoleptic characteristic of the product. In case the product is intended to be smoked, the storage time can be in the smoking chamber. After the ripening period, the product must be stored under refrigeration until commercialization.

Longaniza

This meat product is originally from Spain; however, it is highly popular not only in South America, but also in Mexico, the Caribbean, and the southern regions of the USA.

Longaniza (Figure 5) is a sausage filled with minced pork mixed with fat (usually belly pork) and spices. Normally natural intestine (from pig) is used for casing, but also synthetic collagen is used at times. Synthetic collagen casing is preferred in large companies, because it helps to standardize the product and reduces the risk of biological contamination in the food product.

Figure 5. Chillán's longaniza, the most famous Chilean sausage.

This sausage is normally long and relatively thin in size. It can be consumed raw if the longaniza has been cured and dried (a process that takes several months), but most commonly this sausage is commercialized as a fresh sausage, hence must be consumed cooked (traditionally fried or in barbecues).

Salchicha de Huacho

This product, also known as salchicha huachana, is typical from Peru. Its elaboration is similar as in longaniza; hence, pork, pork belly, and spices are normally used in the elaboration of this product. After mixing the ingredients, either natural or synthetic edible collagen can be used for casing.

A peculiar characteristic of this sausage is its bright yellow color due to the use of annatto in its production. Annatto is a natural colorant used in food production, which is extracted from the South American plant Bixa orellana.

Salchicha de Huacho is a fresh sausage and it must be cooked (usually fried) before consumption.

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Food regulations, standards, and labelling

Susan Featherstone , in A Complete Course in Canning and Related Processes (Fourteenth Edition), 2015

2.11.2 Mandatory standards

2.11.2.1 Standards of composition and identity

USDA has established minimum content requirements for federally inspected meat and poultry products (usually canned or frozen) under the Federal Meat Inspection Act and the Poultry Products Inspection Act and these regulations are covered in Title nine CFR Part 319.

To be labelled with a particular name – such as 'Beef Stew' – a federally inspected meat or poultry product must meet specified content requirements. These requirements assure the consumer that he's getting what the label says he's getting. They do not, however, prevent different companies from making distinctive recipes. The USDA minimum content requirement for products listed in Title nine CFR Part 319 are 'Chile con Carne' – 40% of fresh meat weight; 'Chile con Carne with Beans' – 25% of fresh meat weight; 'Hash' – 35% of cooked meat weight; 'Corned Beef Hash' – not less than 35% of cooked meat weight of fresh beef; 'Cured Beef' or 'Canned Corned Beef', for meat stew – 25% fresh meat of species named on label; 'Tamales' – 25% fresh meat; 'Spaghetti with Meat and Sauce' and similar products – not less than 12% of fresh meat weight; 'Spaghetti sauce with Meat' – 6% of fresh meat; 'Tripe with Milk' – 65% tripe; 'Beans with Frankfurters in Sauce', 'Sauerkraut with Wieners and Juice', and similar products – not less than 20% by weight of the cooked meat product; 'Lima Beans with Ham in Sauce', 'Beans with Bacon', and similar products – 12% of cooked product; 'Chow Mein Vegetables with Meat' – 12% of fresh meat; 'Pork or Beef with Barbecue Sauce' – 50% of cooked meat; 'Beef with Gravy' shall not contain from meat with more than 30% trimable fat; 'Deviled Ham', tongue, or similar products – not more than 35% fat; and 'Ham or Tongue Spread' – not less than 50% of the meat ingredient named. In addition, other guidelines in the above-mentioned standards include setting specific and optional ingredients. Interested parties should consult the CFR for complete details.

USDA has also established complete standards of identity for pizza, oleomargarine, lard, mixed-fat shortening, and meat extracts.

2.11.2.2 US food and drug administration standards

The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act provides for three kinds of mandatory standards for products being shipped across state lines: standards of identity, standards of minimum quality, and standards of fill of container. All these standards are administered by the Food and Drug Administration of the US Department of Health and Human Services. The law sets forth penalties for noncompliance.

Standards of Identity – FDA standards of identity (like USDA's) establish what a given food product is – that is, what a food must be to be labelled 'preserves'. FDA standards of identity also provide for use of optional ingredients, in addition to the mandatory ingredients that identify the product. Standards of identity have eliminated from the market such things as 'raspberry spread' – a product made from a little fruit and a lot of water, pectin, sugar, artificial colouring and flavouring, and a few grass seeds to suggest a fruit preserve; such a product may not be labelled as 'preserves'.

FDA has standards of identity for a large number of food products (excluding meat and poultry products, which are covered by USDA).

Types of products for which standards of identity have been formulated by FDA include: cacao product, cereal flour and related products, macaroni and noodle products, bakery products, milk and cream products, cheese and cheese products, frozen desserts, food flavouring, dressings for food, canned fruits and fruit juices, fruit butters, jellies and preserves, nonalcoholic beverages, canned and frozen shellfish, eggs, and egg products, oleomargarine or margarine, nut products, canned vegetables, and tomato products.

Standards of Minimum Quality – FDA standards of quality have been set for a number of canned fruits and vegetables to supplement standards of identity. These are minimum standards for such factors as tenderness, colour, and freedom from defects. They are regulatory, as opposed to USDA grand standards of quality, which are for voluntary use.

If a food does not meet FDA quality standards, it must be labelled 'Below Standard in Quality Food – Not High Grade' or, words may be substituted for the second part of that statement to show in what respect the product is substandard. The label could read, 'Below Standard in Quality Food, Excessively Broken', or 'Below Standard in Quality Food, Excessive Peel'. The consumer seldom, if ever, sees a product with a substandard label.

When USDA grade standards are developed for a product for which FDA has a minimum standard of quality, requirements for the lowest grade level USDA sets are at least as high as the FDA minimum. USDA grade standards for canned tomatoes, for example, are US Grades A, B, and C. Grade C is comparable to FDA's minimum standard of quality.

Standards of Fill of Container – These standards tell the packer how full a container must be to avoid deception. They prevent the selling of air or water in place of food.

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HACCP in the processing of fresh meat

C.O. Gill , in Improving the Safety of Fresh Meat, 2005

27.7 Collection and cooling of offals

Offals include a range of diverse tissues which can be considered as falling into three broad groups with respect to their collection and cooling. Those groups are the mainly muscle tissues of head meats, weasand meat and tongues, and appendages such as tails, ears and trotters; visceral organs such as the heart, liver, kidneys, spleen and thymus; and portions of the gut, such as parts of cattle and sheep stomachs which are sold as tripes, the small intestines of pigs which are sold as chitterlings, and the tubes of connective tissue stripped from the outsides of intestines which are sold as natural casings ( Pearson and Dutson, 1998).

The tissues of the first group will be more or less heavily contaminated with bacteria at the time of their removal from the carcass whatever collection methods are adopted. The critical operations in the collection processes for those tissues are then the cleaning treatments and any decontaminating treatments to which they are subjected. Washing alone, when performed for a sufficient time with large volumes of water, can reduce the numbers of bacteria on head meats, tongues and cattle tails (Table 27-20), and probably on similar product such as weasand meat (Gill et al., 1999e). Dehairing, scrubbing or other vigorous cleaning treatment may be required for substantial reduction of the numbers of bacteria on products largely covered by skin, like ears and trotters. However vigorous the cleaning, the numbers of bacteria remaining on offals of the first group are likely to remain high. A pasteurizing treatment of those offals products would then seem desirable, although such a treatment is at present not usual.

Table 27-20. Log mean numbers of total aerobic bacteria, coliforms and Escherichia coli on beef tongues and tails before and after washing, and beef cheeks and lips after washing at a packing plant (Gill et al., 1999c)

Product Stage of processing Log mean numbers
Aerobes(log CFU/cm2) Coliforms (log CFU/100 cm2) E. coli (log CFU/100 cm2)
Tongue Before washing 4.84 4.34 4.27
After washing 2.13 < 1.00 < 1.00
Cheeks After washing 3.35 2.48 2.17
Lips After washing 2.42 1.77 1.40
Tails Before washing 3.73 4.86 4.66
After washing 2.60 2.89 2.58

The visceral organs which compose the second group of offals can be removed without being much contaminated with bacteria (Gill and De Lacy, 1982). The organs must be inspected for symptoms of overt disease, and are usually placed on trays along with, if in separate compartments from, the intestines of the animal. Unfortunately, the requirements for inspection always override any consideration of preventing microbiological contamination of the organs. Consequently, they may be heavily contaminated during operations for their removal from the carcass and inspection, but changes to the process to improve their microbiological condition will be difficult to implement if the proposed changes are seen as conflicting in any way with the inspection procedures. Organ offals are usually washed before they are packed, but the extent to which microbial loads on the products are reduced by washing in commercial processes does not seem to have been reported.

Portions of the gut which are used for food will always be heavily contaminated with bacteria associated with faeces and ingesta even after the extensive washing that must be applied to remove most of the visible contamination. Portions of gut used as food for humans may be sold raw (Stewart et al., 1978), but much of those tissues are cooked or otherwise processed before they are sold to consumers. Thus, chitterlings are usually subjected to prolonged boiling and are pressed in moulds to form a compact mass suitable for slicing; beef tripes are usually scalded then soaked in an alkaline peroxide solution which bleaches and swells the tissues; and casings are usually preserved by dry salting or immersion in strong brine solutions. All of those treatments can destroy most of the bacteria present on the product (Gill, 1988). The final treatments of the gut portions are therefore CCPs in the collection processes for those products.

For the offals which are not processed, like those in the third group, the growth of bacteria must be controlled or prevented by chilling or freezing the products. While temperatures remain above 7 °C, mesophilic, enteric pathogens present on the product will be able to grow, while cold-tolerant pathogens are capable of growth at temperatures down to 0 °C or below (Greer et al., 1995). The rates at which bacteria grow tend to increase rapidly with temperature (Fig. 27.2), so the rate at which the temperature of an offal is reduced, from body temperature to at least the chiller temperature range, is as important for product safety as the final temperature attained by the product (Gill and Harrison, 1985).

Fig. 27.2. Effect of temperature on the generation time of Escherichia coli (Gill and Harrison, 1985).

The small sizes and the extensive washing with cold water of the individual pieces of tissue amongst the offals of the first group (Gill and Jones, 1992) will generally ensure that they are at a temperature of about 25 °C by the time that they are packed (Table 27-21). If they are then placed in boxes or other containers of moderate size and the containers are each exposed to an adequately rapid flow of cold air, then they will cool sufficiently rapidly to preclude any extensive growth of mesophilic pathogens. In contrast, large organs such as beef livers or hearts may cool little between the times they are removed from carcasses and the times of their arrival at a packing station. Those organs can then be at a temperature of over 35 °C when packed, and if placed in large boxes or containers will cool only slowly at the centres of such containers even when those are exposed to high flows of cold air. Under such circumstances extensive growth of pathogenic bacteria on the product is possible.

Table 27-21. Temperatures at the centres of newly packed boxes of offals at a beef packing plant (Gill and Jones, 1992)

Offal Temperature (°C)
Maximum Average
Liver 38 36
Heart 39 36
Hanging tender 36 34
Tongue 30 26
Cheek 29 25
Lip 29 25
Weasand meat 27 24
Tail 27 24

The worst practice, which obtains at some plants, is to collect warm offals into bulk containers which are held for lengthy periods at the collection point before the containers are filled and moved to a packing station. Under those circumstances, a flora predominantly of E. coli can develop (Gill and Penney, 1982). The best practice with offals is their suspension on hooks along a rack which is placed in a chiller or freezer in an area of high airflow so that the offals cool rapidly with drying of the surfaces.

The adequacy of the control over offal cooling can be assessed by the collection of temperature histories from randomly selected units moving through a process, and integration of the temperature histories with respect to models which describe the dependency on temperature of the growth of indicator organisms, such as E. coli (Gill et al., 1995). Packing and cooling procedures can then be adjusted to ensure that the maximum proliferation of pathogens at any point within any product unit is maintained within tolerable limits. The growth predicted for E. coli at a monitored point within a mass of organ offals (Gill and Harrison, 1985) is likely to be close to the growth that would occur amongst any such organisms that were present (Table 27-22). Bacterial growth values estimated from product temperature histories collected from randomly selected sites in randomly selected product units may then be substituted with some confidence for directly determined bacterial numbers when assessing the microbiological effects of offal cooling processes. Similar procedures can also be applied for assessing the adequacy of procedures for cooling meat which is cut from warm carcasses in a hot boning process (Reichel et al., 1991).

Table 27-22. Values for the proliferation of Escherichia coli on cooling offals determined by the enumeration of bacteria or calculated from product temperature history data (Gill and Harrison, 1985)

Offal E. coli proliferation (generations)
By enumeration By calculation
Liver 13.6 13.3
Heart 10.7 10.9
Kidney 10.9 9.5
Brain 7.0 7.3
Sweetbread 2.7 2.8

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Sausage processing and production

Steven M. Lonergan , ... Dennis N. Marple , in The Science of Animal Growth and Meat Technology (Second Edition), 2019

Sausage Ingredients

Raw Meat Materials

The proper selection of raw materials, primarily animal tissues, is fundamental to the production of uniform, high quality, safe sausage products. In other words, a sausage product will be no better than the raw meat ingredients used to manufacture it. In Table 14.1 , a wide variety of different raw meat products used in the manufacture of sausage products are presented. These raw materials are derived from the skeletal and nonskeletal parts (variety meats) of beef, pigs, sheep, and calves. In addition to these tissues, chicken and turkey skeletal muscle meats are also used. Poultry meat is a significant ingredient in the manufacture of sausage products because it is a less expensive ingredient than red meats. Mechanically separated meat from beef, lamb, pork, chicken, turkey, and minced fish are raw materials used in the manufacture of some sausage products. The most valuable raw meat material ingredients for sausage production are lean skeletal meats obtained from bull and cow carcasses. This beef is especially recognized for its high lean-to-fat ratio, lean color, and superior water-binding capacity. Pork and beef trimmings provide most of the added fat in a sausage formulation. Some nonskeletal muscle meats such as hearts, tongues, and tripe are used sparingly as filler meats in some least-cost formulations. When used, all filler meats must be listed individually on the package ingredient statement. Other nonskeletal muscle meats, however, are used to make high quality sausage items such as liver sausage and blood and tongue sausage. Because of the variation in animal tissues, certain standards of freshness, bacterial contamination, binding properties, lean-to-fat ratio, composition, lean color, collagen content, bone and bone fragments, and "gristle"-free meat must be met to achieve high quality sausage products.

Table 14.1. Examples of different meats used in sausage manufacture (classified according to binding a qualities)

Items Examples
Meats having the best binding qualities: Bull beef
Boneless cow meat
Beef chucks
Meats having fairly good binding qualities: Beef head meat
Beef cheeks
Boneless veal
Calf head meat
Pork trimmings, extra lean
Pork trimmings, lean
Pork head meat
Pork cheeks
Meats having poor binding qualities: Beef hearts
Beef weasand meat
Beef giblets
Beef tongue trimmings
Regular pork trimmings
Pork hearts
Pork jowls
Pork ham fat
Sheep cheeks
Sheep hearts
The following meats, although nutritious, have practically no binding qualities at all and are used as fillers in the interest of economy. The use of these ingredients should be limited to less than 25% of the meat formula because of their high connective tissue content. Ox lips
Beef tripe
Pork snouts
Pork lips
Pork tripe
a
Bind is defined as the capacity to attract and retain water and encapsulate fat.

The characteristics of meat associated with binding ability are particularly essential in the production of high quality sausages. Naturally, meat has a wide variation in its ability to bind water and hold lean and fat together. The best water-retention and fat-emulsification properties of meat during processing are from the proteins of lean skeletal muscle tissues.

Myofibrillar Proteins

The myofibrillar proteins are the class of meat proteins responsible for binding water and encapsulating fat. For example, the addition of salt to the lean meat portion of the sausage formulation to solubilize the myofibrillar protein is the most effective way of binding added water and fat in the sausage product. Once solubilized, the myofibrillar proteins are able to form a "gel" when heated. This gel matrix is the explanation for the change in texture of cooked salted meat (e.g., from frankfurter batter to a frankfurter that has texture and bind).

Sarcoplasmic Proteins

Another class of meat proteins is called sarcoplasmic proteins. They are water soluble, and the muscle pigment, myoglobin, is located in the sarcoplasmic protein fraction. Myoglobin is responsible for the color patterns in meat. For example, beef has the most myoglobin and has the darkest color. Pork has less myoglobin and has a lighter color than beef. Poultry breast and wing meat has the least myoglobin and is lighter in color than pork. The darker poultry meat from legs has more myoglobin and is darker than breast meat. Therefore the sarcoplasmic protein traits will influence the color of processed meat. The sarcoplasmic proteins, however, have very limited binding capacity when compared with the myofibrillar proteins. More detailed information on sarcoplasmic proteins can be found in Chapter 9 and Fig. 9.6.

Stromal Protein

Collagen is an example of stromal protein in muscle. This muscle connective tissue protein is capable of binding water, but collagen does not have good binding traits. Collagen-type meats such as beef shanks should be limited in the manufacture of an emulsion-type sausage to obtain a stable batter.

Fat

In addition to the muscle component for sausage, fat from beef and pork trimmings is added to adjust to the desired fat content in the sausage formulation. Fat contributes to the texture, juiciness, taste, flavor, and final price of the sausage. Fat is a major ingredient in sausage production. Today, however, the trend is to decrease fat content to meet the consumer demand for low-fat or fat-free sausages.

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